Chapter V - Policy

Chapter V - Policy

Policy, backed up with enabling legislative provisions, is the mother of an enduring adult education system. On the wings of a strong policy back up, it is possible to mount a strong and well-articulated system of adult education. Policies in adult education relate to priority in national development pronouncements and plans of adult education system, i.r.o. its various components such as levels, curriculum framework, contents-learner needs resonance, pedagogy, assessment, equivalence, etc. It also relates to the governance system and role of different agencies as well as allocation of adequate resources.

The Belem Framework locates policy as the most critical measure for adult education beyond the definitional issue. It is convinced that, “policies and legislative measures for adult education need to be comprehensive, inclusive and integrated within a lifelong and life-wide learning perspective, based on sector-wide and inter-sectoral approaches, covering and linking all components of learning and education” (UNESCO, 2009: 3). In particular, it recommends: (i) Developing and implementing fully-costed policies, well-targeted plans and legislations for addressing adult literacy, education for young people and adults, and lifelong learning; (ii) Designing specific and concrete action plans for adult learning and education which are integrated into MDG, EFA and UNLD, as well as other national and regional development plans; (iii) Establishing appropriate coordination mechanisms, such as monitoring committees involving all stakeholders active in adult learning and education; and (iv) Developing or improving structures and mechanisms for the recognition, validation and accreditation of all forms of learning by establishing equivalency frameworks(UNESCO, 2009).

The LIFE document lays emphasis on: Cross-sectoral policy basis at the national level for designing literacy policies and strategies; Fostering human rights and empowerment of learners; Enhancing synergies between formal and non-formal education and promote continuing education opportunities for optimizing access to and retention and use of literacy skills; and Decentralized system of governance to deliver more relevant and context-sensitive literacy programmes (Jagmohan Singh Raju, 2011[1])

Policy on Adult Education India

Policy documents on education do emphasize on adult education, as seen in the case of Education Commission Report (1964-66) and NPE, 1986 and 1992 (Revised). But these policy emphasis has no legislative backing, as in the case of the formal education system, by Central or State legislatures. The National Workshop noted for example: India has a well articulated policy on education (e.g. NPE, 1986). However, the policy does not reflect adequately on adult literacy, adult education and lifelong education as envisaged at international levels; there is no legislation on adult education in India, and adult literacy and education plans are not well integrated into MDGs and UNLD, India’s action plans for adult learning and education are integrated into its EFA goals.

There is, therefore, a need for clear policy for adult learning and education as part of overall policy for education. The concept of Right to Education needs to be extended to adult education as well. Adult learning and education needs to be recognized as an important contributor to human resource development. Size of the problem of adult illiteracy and lack of awareness in India needs special attention as part of development plans of the country. Adult learning and education in India needs to lay emphasis on gender social and regional equity as well as the marginalized groups. There is a felt need for enacting comprehensive legislation to formally recognize forms of education other than formal and for the recognition, validation and accreditation of learning obtained through adult education. Several countries have already enacted such laws. For example, Thailand’s Education Act 1999 institutionalizes credit transfer among formal, non-formal and informal education. To promote a systematic lifelong education, enabling legislative measures will be required to integrate formal, non-formal and informal learning, and Legislative measures would also be required to provide framework for establishing specific structures of lifelong education.

Chapter IV - Programme Design and Delivery

Chapter IV - Programme Design and Delivery

Design and delivery dimensions deal with the arrangements envisaged for implementation of adult education programmes, such as, institutional set-ups as well as organizational and management structures and implementation modalities designed, capacity building and professionalisation of personnel directly involved in implementation as well as the orientation and sensitization of other stakeholders whose cooperation is necessary for its success, are also part of design and delivery parameters.

The Belem Framework does not deal separately with programme design and delivery dimensions, especially in respect of institutional and organizational infrastructures for implementation of adult education programmes. The reasons are not far to seek. Unlike LIFE, which is global strategic framework for implementation of literacy efforts, Belem Framework is a diagnosis of adult education initiatives in the world, and deals with all aspects in totality, including policy, funding, planning and implementation of adult education programmes, learner needs resonance of its contents and local context resonance of implementation modalities, etc.

The different aspects of its diagnosis that informed the design and delivery architecture included: (a) Recognition and accreditation of non-formal, informal and experiential learning; (b) Advocacy efforts across a number of fronts and strong inter-ministerial cooperation, organizational structures and links between adult education and other sectors;(c) Establishing adequate financial planning to enable adult education to make a telling contribution of the future; (d) Matching decentralization with adequate financial allocation or delegation of budgetary authority; (e) Adult education programmes being responsive to the needs of women, SCs, STs and minorities, rural population and migrants; (f) Diversity of learners by age, gender, cultural background, economic status, unique needs and language and its reflection in programme content and practices; and (g) Professionalisation and training opportunities for adult educators, and so on.

Since it is a strategic framework to assist national literacy efforts, LIFE lays particular stress on programme design and delivery dimensions. These include: (a) Providing governments with technical support for the design and development of context-specific programmes, with delivery mechanisms that are locally relevant, geared to the empowerment of learners and focusing on gender parity and poverty reduction; and (b) Strengthening existing national institutions and operational infrastructures, which are responsible for the design and delivery of literacy programmes (government, NGOs and other providers), in order to implement LIFE through effective management of resources – human, financial and material. Staff and structures should have the capacity to facilitate inclusion of the most marginalized groups (Jagmohan Singh Raju, 2011[1]; UNESCO, 2006: 28).

LIFE also stressed the need to: (i) Address the deficit of qualified personnel through training of trainers, literacy facilitators and supervisors, undertaking these programmes through learner-centred, learning-by-doing, participatory techniques and the adaptation of regional resources and training packages, exchange of experiences and networking. (ii) Putting in place delivery mechanism that is locally relevant, geared to the empowerment of learners and focusing on gender parity and poverty reduction. (iii) Strengthening of existing national institutions and operational infrastructures, which are responsible for the design and delivery of literacy programmes. (iv) Ensuring that staff and structures should have the capacity to facilitate inclusion of the most marginalized groups. (v) Engaging the private sector in facilitating literacy training for their workforce.

Emerging Perspectives

The design and delivery dimensions recommended represent the handmaid of strategic shift from literacy to lifelong education articulated in the NCFAE Report and endorsed in the Workshop: (a) The instrumentality to translate the new perspective of adult and continuing education in the lifelong learning perspective, would have a nodal agency at national level, viz., National Authority on Adult Education in place of the present NLMA, as a permanent body with its state level counterparts; (b) A dedicated administrative cadre for adult education at state, district and Block levels; (c) The institutional set ups in the form of Adult Education Centres, which are multi-utility – extension – centres; (d) AECs at Block and District levels for higher levels of adult education; (e) The State Directorate of Adult Education (SDACE), as administrative head of the hierarchy of adult education administrative set-up and cadre, with District and Block level offices and cadres for delivery of adult education programmes; (f) The institutional set up for academic and techno-pedagogic support system for adult education at State level, viz., the SRCs would need to undergo a complete overhaul with respect to new vision of adult education in lifelong learning perspective; (g) Professionalization of AE Cadre: The Adult Education Teachers – the Preraks - are first level information providers to all line Depts. and facilitators of multi-utility programmes of AECs. By their systematic and intensive training, they are also expected to be the foot soldiers of adult education and vanguards of NLMA’s larger social objectives; (h) The inter-sectoral character of adult education envisaged should also entail systematic and concerted sensitization of line Department functionaries; and (i) Same is the case w.r.t. decentralisation, viz., sensitization and capacity building of the Panchayati Raj Institutions, Education Departments, the ZSS functionaries, besides the personnel in State Directorate of Adult Education.

Chapter III - Total Quality Management

Chapter III - Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management relates to the plethora of aspects which deeply impinge upon quality of delivery of the programme and learning outcomes of the participants.

The Belem Framework firmly holds the view that fostering a culture of quality in adult learning requires relevant content and modes of delivery, learner-centred needs assessment, acquisition of multiple competencies and knowledge, professionalization of educators, enrichment of learning environments and empowerment of individuals and communities. To this end, it commits to: Developing quality criteria for curricula, learning materials and teaching methodologies in adult education programmes, taking account of outcomes and impact measures; Recognising the diversity and plurality of providers; Improving training, capacity-building, employment conditions and the professionalization of adult educators; Elaborating criteria to assess learning outcomes of adults at various levels; Putting in place precise quality indicators; and Lending greater support to systematic inter-disciplinary research in adult learning and education, complemented by knowledge management systems for collection, analysis and dissemination of data and good practices (Jagmohan Singh Raju, 2011[2]; UNESCO, 2009: 6). In the LIFE document, there are no explicit programme or strategy components directly linked to quality improvement.

Situation in Indian Context and Emerging Perspectives

The emerging perspectives related to the measures contained in the Report of National Curriculum Framework for Adult Education, such as: (i) Core Curriculum Framework for Adult Education should have a core content covering national values as well as locally relevant issues; (ii) The national values to include scientific temper, communal harmony, gender parity, national integration. It would imply specific focus on the values of India’s socio-cultural, ethnic diversity and the need to reflect them in curricular contents, Teaching-Learning processes and living by these values; and (iii) Issues relating to local context would also get equal reflection in the content and curriculum (NCFAE, 2011: 22-23). The NCFAE also stressed that, in order to foster a culture of quality in literacy, there is need to have: Learning environments where learners can express their demands and preferences; Teaching–Learning Materials and methodologies in consonance with learner’s needs and practices; Improved training and capacity-building opportunities for adult educators within the philosophical framework of lifelong learning; and Improved employment conditions and professionalization of adult educators.

Other catalysts of improved quality stressed and endorsed by NCFAE included (1) the use of new Learning Technologies, especially ICTs, and in particular: (i) Increased use of ICT for literacy; (ii) ICT aided teaching learning; (iii) ICT aided capacity building; (iv) ICT enabled management information system (MIS); and (v) Computer literacy; (2) learner-centred needs assessment; content relevance to learner’s needs; and its efficient delivery; acquisition of sustainable competencies and knowledge that enables learner to meet better the challenges of environment and competencies of educators and learner assessment. (3) Development of quality curricula, learning materials and teaching methodologies in adult and lifelong education programmes is of foremost importance, and felt that this will be feasible only through active engagement of universities, industry, line departments, industry and other expert agencies. Teaching learning materials and processes must reflect the socio-cultural and ethnic diversity of learners besides creating learning environments where learners can express their demands and preferences. The Workshop recommended that to attract talent in adult education, as a trigger of quality, Literacy Educators ought to be paid at par with educators in the formal education system. Even voluntary teachers should be given financial incentives on performance basis.

Chapter II - Equity, Inclusion and Participation

Chapter II - Equity, Inclusion and Participation

Illiteracy is the biggest barrier to inclusion in socio-economic and political development processes. Barriers to participation in adult literacy and education on account of age, gender, ethnicity, language, region, etc., are the biggest hurdles for inclusion. Therefore, the strategies for inclusion should address removing the barriers to participation in adult literacy and education programmes. Belem Framework considers inclusive education as “fundamental to the achievement of human, social and economic development”, and for social harmony and dignity in life. It is firm that “there can be no exclusion arising from age, gender, ethnicity, migrant status, language, religion, disability, rurality, sexual identity or orientation, poverty, displacement or imprisonment” (UNESCO, 2009: 5).

In Belem Framework’s view, “of particular importance”, are measures like: (a) Promoting and facilitating more equitable access to, and participation in, adult learning and education by enhancing a culture of learning and by eliminating barriers to participation; (b) Combating the cumulative effects of multiple disadvantage, particularly to the groups in early adulthood; (c) Creating multi-purpose community learning spaces and centres and improving access to, and participation in, the full range of adult learning and education programmes for women; (d) Supporting the development of writing and literacy in the various indigenous languages by developing relevant programmes, methods and materials that recognize and value the indigenous cultures, knowledge and methodologies, while adequately developing the teaching of the second language of wider communication; (e) Supporting financially a systematic focus on disadvantaged groups (e.g.. indigenous peoples, migrants, people with special needs and those living in rural areas) in all educational programmes that could be provided free of charge or subsidized by our governments; and (f) providing adult education in prison at all appropriate levels; and so on (UNESCO,2009: 5).

In respect of inclusion, the approach of LIFE is that of a staunch advocate. It says that: “LIFE specifically aims to contribute to the empowerment of women, out-of-school girls and their families, especially in rural areas, and of those with insufficient or no literacy skills – often the poorest and most marginalized members of society.” This is because, “their empowerment in turn can have a positive impact on the quality of the lives of their families, poverty reduction, socio-economic development, and school enrolment of their children.” Therefore, it says that “taking into account the principles put forward by the Delors Commission, LIFE will promote literacy throughout life so that women and men can engage in ‘learning to be’, ‘learning to live together’, ‘learning to do’ and ‘learning to know’” (UNESCO, 2006, 18).

Indian Scenario

The focus of the National Literacy Mission on the inclusive dimension was always unmistakable, with nearly two-thirds of target group as well as actual participants women and nearly the same for SCs, STs, and Muslim minorities. Saakshar Bharat Programme is primarily a rural centric programme. The environment building campaign in Saakshar Bharat is specifically directed towards removing mindsets or ill perceived notions about literacy and removing socio cultural barriers to participation. Gender perspective is an over-arching guiding principle in every aspect of Saakshar Bharat Programme. Literacy programmes in India are strong on using indigenous languages for imparting literacy. Indigenous cultures, knowledge and methodologies are used in the Teaching-Learning methods and processes as well as for environment building and social mobilisation.

Measures for Inclusion

In view of the Belem Framework’s recommendations, the measures suggested included: creation of appropriate infrastructure to enhance the culture of learning and education by eliminating barriers to participation of the excluded group like women, SCs, STs, minorities in rural areas and urban slums through awareness, mobilization, environment building and well-designed and targeted guidance, information and motivation. Other measurers on this theme could include:

• Setting up of well equipped multi-purpose Adult Education Centers (AECs)
• The need of curricular relevance to the life context of the learners in respect of economic condition, work situation, and geographical location; and
• In order to improve the access to the programme, the barriers like socio-economic discrimination, patriarchal values in the society are to be kept in mind and initiatives taken to develop need based curriculum, engaging women facilitators, fixing suitable timing for conducting literacy /AE Centre, arranging crèches and mobile literacy centre;
• Thematic packages, not just literacy Primers, should be developed to enable women to practice and apply their literacy skills.
• Persons with a proven record and experience of working on issues of gender, caste, disability, and conflict areas should have a say in decision-making;
• Instructors and Preraks should be especially chosen for their sensitivity to issues of gender, caste equality, and their commitment to Constitutional values of democracy and secularism; and
• Gender should be introduced as a core area in all trainings (NIRANTAR, 2011, Anita Dighe, 2011).

Chapter I - Adult Literacy and Education: Definition and Scope

Chapter I - Adult Literacy and Education: Definition and Scope

Definition and scope of adult literacy and education programmes have never been a settled issue. Definition of adult literacy itself, i.e., whether it should be only about levels of proficiency in the 3Rs and should also include other ‘literacies’, such as health, rights, ICT, etc., are far from settled, and depends upon the country situation in its development context. With regard to the scope of literacy and adult education, there is a world of difference in different countries between the learning opportunities provided and the life needs and interests of learners. This section, as in respect of other sections, examines the perceptions and recommendations of the Belem Framework for Action, the LIFE document, the policy formulations in India and the Indian scene in respect of definition and scope of adult literacy and education in India, and the emerging perceptions on the issue in the light of the deliberations in the National Workshop.

The Belem Framework deals with “adult learning and education” as an essential element of the right to education (Jagmohan Singh Raju, 2011[2]). It endorses the definition adopted in Hamburg Declaration in 1997: “the entire body of ongoing learning processes, formal or otherwise, whereby people regarded as adults by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, and improve their technical or professional qualifications or turn them in a new direction to meet their own needs and those of their society” (UNESCO, 2009: 1).

The Belem Framework also goes into the scope of adult literacy, as: “the most significant foundation upon which to build comprehensive, inclusive and integrated lifelong and life-wide learning for all young people and adults.” Given the magnitude of the global literacy challenge, the Framework deems it vital to redouble the “efforts to ensure that existing adult literacy goals and priorities, as enshrined in Education for All (EFA), the United Nations Literacy Decade (UNLD) and the Literacy Initiative for Empowerment (LIFE), are achieved by all means possible.” The Framework also lays emphasis to “recognize literacy as a continuum”, and for planning and implementing continuing education, training and skills development beyond the basic literacy skills, supported by an enriched literate environment (UNESCO, 2009: 1-2).

The LIFE document defines literacy as the “competencies in reading, writing and numeracy and life skills”. LIFE positions it as an Initiative not only to promote these competencies, but also to substantially increase literacy learning opportunities, beyond the basic literacy level (UNESCO, 2006: 11).

The LIFE document also refers to the scope of literacy, i.e., what it can and should lead to. It views literacy as an: “indispensable means” for effective social and economic participation, contributing to human development and poverty reduction.” LIFE is convinced that, “literacy empowers and nurtures inclusive societies and contributes to the fair implementation of human rights. In the case of mothers, literacy leads to an enhanced quality of life for their families and improved education outcomes for their children” (UNESCO, 2006: 11).

LIFE also talks of promoting: (i) Integration of literacy with various issues including income generation, entrepreneurial training linked with access to micro credit, reproductive health care, and civics and HIV/AIDS prevention; (ii) Life skills, use of applied/appropriate technology, including ICTs, creation of reading spaces and resource, and popularization of science and technology in rural areas; and (iii) Opportunities across the continuum of literacy, post-literacy and continuing education within the framework of lifelong learning (UNESCO, 2006, 27).

Definition of Adult Literacy and Adult Education in India

The Education Commission (1964-66) viewed that the scope of adult education is as wide as life itself. It noted that “one of the major planks in the strategy of a society which is determined to achieve economic development, social transformation and effective social security should be to educate its citizens to participate in its developmental programmes willingly, intelligently and efficiently.” It stated that the function of adult education in a democracy is to provide every adult citizen with an opportunity for education of the type which he wishes and which he should have for his personal enrichment, professional advancement and effective participation in social and political life (NCERT, 1971: 778).

National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 locates Adult Education in the mainstream educational system. Highlighting the importance of Adult Education, the NPE observes, “Our ancient scriptures define education as that which liberates i.e., provides the instruments for liberation from ignorance and oppression.  In the modern world, it would naturally include the ability to read and write, since that is the modern world, it would naturally include the ability to read and write, since that is the main instrument of learning. Hence, the crucial importance of adult education, including adult literacy.” The NPE expects literacy (adult education) to facilitate accomplishment of “national goals such as alleviation of poverty, national integration, environmental conservation, observance of the small family norm, promotion of women’s equality, universalisation of primary education, basic health-care, etc.  It will also facilitate energisation of the cultural creativity of the people and their active participation in development processes” (MHRD, 1986: 5).

In respect of its scope, NPE states that “comprehensive programmes of post-literacy and continuing education will be provided for neo-literates and youth, who have received primary education, with a view to enabling them to retain and upgrade their literacy skills, and to harness it for the improvement of their living and working condition.”  These programmes, according to NPE would inter alia include:

1. Establishment of continuing education centres of diverse kind to enable adults to continue their education of their choice;
2. Workers’ education through the employers, trade unions and government;
3. Wider promotion of books, libraries and reading rooms;
4. Use of radio, TV and films – as mass as well as group learning media;
5. Creation of learners’ groups and organizations; and
6. Programmes of distance learning (MHRD, 1986: 9-10).

Lastly, NPE recognizes “that a critical development issue today is the continuous upgradation of skills so as to produce manpower resources of the kind and the number required by the society.  The special emphasis will, therefore be, laid on organization of employment/self-employment oriented and need and interest based vocational and skill training programmes” (MHRD, 1986: 9).

Consistency of Definitions

It is often said that there are frameworks and declarations on adult learning and education, yet there is a lack of agreement on the definition, scope and focus of adult education activities. Rather, concepts on adult learning and education are contextualized according to the needs, historical discourse and shifts in paradigms in a particular country. For example, in high-income and middle-income countries such as Thailand, where adult learning and education is well established and where there is a coherent policy with responsibility for the government and others indicated, the concepts are well-defined and focused. However, in many other countries the definitions, concepts and scope of adult education and learning are not well articulated. Overall, the experiences and records of Asian countries in this regard suggest that, rather than focus on international consistency and uniformity, it would be more appropriate, to concentrate on developing contextualized, endogenous concepts and definitions to design and guide adult literacy and education programmes.

In India literacy is the principal format of adult education. As a sequel to the NPE’s Programme of Action (1986), the National Literacy Mission (NLM) was launched in 1988, with the aim of imparting functional literacy to 80 million adults in the 15-35 age group by 1995 (GOI, 1986: 135). It started with a mass campaign approach, known as the Total Literacy Campaign (TLC), but had evolved into a massive programme of adult education.

The NLM conceived literacy as an active and potent instrument of change and for the creation of a learning society. Functional literacy was defined as: (i) Achieving self-reliance in literacy and numeracy; (ii) Becoming aware of the causes of their own deprivation and ways of overcoming their condition through organization, and participation in the process of development; (iii) Acquiring skills to improve economic status and general well-being; and (iv) Adopting the values of national integration, environmental conservation, women’s equality and observance of small-family norms.

As proposed in the National Policy on Education (Revised 1992), NLM combined Post-Literacy and Continuing Education (PL & CE) activities in order to consolidate and improve functional literacy skills of neo-literates (MHRD, 1996: 25). The Post-Literacy Campaigns had three broad learning objectives – remediation, continuation and application. A scheme of Continuing Education, distinct from the previous PL & CE, was launched by NLM in 1997, to provide learning opportunities to neo-literates on a continuing basis and to reinforce and widen the literacy skills for personal, social and economic improvement. The Continuing Education Centre (CEC), the main delivery point of CE programmes, looked after by a Prerak (Animator), was meant to be a community-based centre with a library and reading room, besides being an information window and a centre of charcha mandal, sports and recreational activities and other life skill programmes (GOI, 1998).

New Perspective

The Saakshar Bharat Programme (SBP) views literacy as a continuum with Basic Education (Equivalency), Skill Development and Continuing Education, beyond the basic literacy stage, and as an interrupted continuum. This revamped adult education system, as envisaged in the Saakshar Bharat Programme, should provide opportunities to meet the learning needs of any type including functional literacy, basic education, higher education, vocational education, physical and emotional development, arts, culture, sports and recreation. Such opportunities of learning should be for all adults, disadvantaged and advantaged, in the age group of 15 years and above who missed the opportunity of formal education as well as all adults who wish to learn outside the formal system of education. Adult Education should be seamlessly integrated with formal education system for horizontal and vertical migration by establishing equivalency frameworks to facilitate credit transfer among formal, non-formal and informal education.

Literacy: Real options for policy and practice in India - References

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Chapter 6 Literacy Policy and Practice: Issues of Language and Gender

6. Literacy Policy and Practice: Issues of Language and Gender

Education in mother tongue – this has been the national policy, particularly at primary and elementary levels, from the beginning. The National Policy on Education, 1968 and 1986 have been emphatic on this issue. In respect of ethnic groups like the tribals, the policy stressed the need to develop curricula and devise instructional materials in tribal languages at the initial stage, with arrangements for switching over to the regional language” (MHRD, 1986: 7).
6.1.1 Language in Adult Literacy
The language of teaching-learning (or medium of instruction) in adult literacy programmes has, as a conscious policy, been the mother tongue from the beginning. After TLC became the dominant approach and strategy, NLM adopted the approach of leaving the issue of language of instruction, to ZSS -- the reason being the language preference of learners, their numbers and feasibility of literacy primers development and transaction as the main considerations. Within a State there are many languages and dialects with or without a written script, spoken by sizeable number of people. There are cases of TLCs that used primers in 6-7 languages, as per their demographic composition and language preference of the learners. In some cases, learners not knowing regional language – language of administration, may like to become literate in that language. There are also districts with large tribal population, speaking a dialect that may or may not have a written script. In such cases, learners are initiated into literacy by using the first primer in the local dialect and switching over to regional language in second and their primers used in TLC. The reading materials in PL and CE stages are generally in regional languages.
6.2 Gender in Literacy Policy and Practice
6.2.1 Adult Literacy
The gender focus (to reduce gender gaps in access/provision, participation, achievement, etc., that have a more quantitative dimension) and addressing the gender bias i.e., age-old socio-economic and culturally embedded gender iniquities, have been the two distinct, but inter-related dimensions of India’s literacy movement since early 1990s. Gender focus was obviously warranted by their two-thirds share in illiteracy. The gender focus of TLCs (viz., paying greater attention in proportion to their number), however, did not come by a pre-design. It emerged from actual experience seen in the massive response of women who perceived the social sanction for their participation as an opportunity to realize their aspirations for literacy, empowerment and improvement. But the hurdles of gender inequities were pervasive, in the socio-cultural outlook, in the content of literacy primers about the role of women in society, in development, position within family, solidarity and collective assertion for their equality, and so on. The literacy movement was the first to address these issues of gender in early 1990s which lent an effective model for the gender focused primary education programmes later.
6.2.2 Gender Focus in Primary Education
In planning and implementation of adult literacy and primary and elementary education of 6-14 age children, gender has come to be treated as a critical issue not just because illiterates are nearly twice more among women as among men. It is more because of the age-old socio-cultural and educational discrimination and deprivation they had to endure. Thus, much before international commitment to girls education was expressed following World Declaration on EFA in 1990, policy environment in India recognized the criticality of educating girls if UEE were to be achieved. In addressing the gender inequities in education, educational planners and policy makers went beyond the gender focus of increasing educational opportunities for girls. In the education of women and girls, the equity edge needed to be even more shaper, as emphasized in NPE, 1986: “Education will be used as an agent of basic change in the status of women. In order to neutralize the accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a well-conceived edge in favor of women… This will be an act of faith and social engineering… The removal of women’s illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their access to, and retention in elementary education will receive overriding priority, through provision of special support services setting time targets and effective monitoring (MHRD, 1986: 6).
Since 1980s, all primary and elementary education programmes were designed to incorporate the gender focus and it gained greater momentum in 1990s in all externally funded primary education programmes in States like AP, Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, etc. However, the programme that took the gender focus to scale, has been DPEP, that initially had even its selection criteria as the low female literacy districts. In all these programmes the focus, as underlined in NPE, 1986, was on reducing gender disparities in enrolment, retention and learning. This intent has been totally imbibed in SSA, the national programme of UEE in EFA since 2000. Mainstreaming gender in every aspect of educational planning and implementation, backed by focused increase in educational opportunities for girls has become the national approach as evident in SSA. Some specific facets of the gender focus and its mainstreaming in SSA include:

• A comprehensive and well-designed package to make girls education totally free;
• Gender sensitivity in curriculum and its transaction; in teacher education; teachers in/pre-service trainings; and training/orientation of educational planners and administrators;
• Increasing the number of women teachers;
• Special campaigns on girls enrolment and special camps, bridge courses, alternative schools to cover un-enrolled girls for their mainstreaming in formal schools, etc (MHRD, 2001: 8-9; MHRD, 2003: 48-49).

Chapter 5 Innovative Programmes

5. Innovative Programmes

5.1 Continuing Education as People’s Programme
Case of West Godavari District in Andhra Pradesh
Taking National Literacy Mission (NLM) Continuing Education (CE) Scheme Guidelines as a broad framework, Government of Andhra Pradesh (AP) evolved its own model for its implementation. The implementation modalities devised present a certain re-definition and refinement over NLM’s CE perception and strategies. These were in respect of: (i) creation and involvement of people’s participatory structures in implementing the CE Centres (CECs); (ii) aligning CE programmes with the needs and interests of beneficiaries; (iii) linkage with development departments and their programmes; and (iv) lending “peoples institution” character to CECs, not only in regard to community support but also in incorporating their involvement in management of CE programmes itself.
5.1.1 CE in West Godavari District: Embodiment of a People’s Programme
West Godavari (WG) was one of the premier districts to take up CE Scheme in 1997, with preparations having started right from 1996. WG-CE Programme was conceptualized primarily as a people’s programme in which community participation, ownership and management of CECs and its activities would be the central features. The role of ZSS – the implementing agency at district level, was seen as one of a catalyst and facilitator, conceptualizing the critical parameters of people’s ownership and management characteristics of CE Scheme and facilitating its operationalisation through financial, technical and academic resource support to CECs (ZSS-WG, 1997 [in Telugu]).
Adopted from State Government policy, these critical parameters included:

• Formation of a village Core Group of persons committed to a social cause like literacy and CE and to organize neo-literates to participate in CE Programme;
• Forming an association of neo-literates (Akshar Sangam [AS]) by paying a membership fee of Rs. 10 per annum, and each AS, seeking a CEC, to have at least 250 members; and electing a 9-Member EC from amongst AS members, five of them being neo-literates and 4 of whom, women.
• Collection of Corpus Fund of not less than Rs. 10,000 for each village; and after fulfilling these formalities, applying to ZSS for a CEC.
• Specific provisions for de-recognition and discontinuation of funding and closing down of CECs found not satisfactory by the ZSS.
• Opening and maintaining a separate Bank Account by AS, operated jointly by President and Convener (HM of village Primary or Middle School) and money withdrawal only on the resolution of AS;
• Selection and appointment of Preraks by Village CE Committee, not by ZSS as elsewhere; Prerak being accountable to AS and it dealing directly with ZSS; Prerak not a functionary of ZSS but a part-time Volunteer.
• The AS entering into an MOU with ZSS to abide by its rules, such as conducting ZSS prescribed weekly activities in CECs, submission of quarterly utilization certificates of funds received from ZSS, etc.;

• AS being allowed flexibility by ZSS to organize such activities of their choice for one week in a month, after conducting activities prescribed by ZSS for first three weeks. NLM allowed flexibility to ZSS to devise CE programmes and activities in harmony with local requirements. WG-ZSS devolved these flexibilities on the AS, and thus, went beyond mere trappings and made CE as a partnership with the community not only in respect of ownership and management of CECs, but also its programmes.
5.1.2 Launching a People’s Participation-based CE: The Strategies Adopted
A well-orchestrated awareness, training and orientation and publicity campaign was undertaken for over 3 months to reach out to every village, section of society and organized groups. At least 5000 people received such training and orientation. More than three-fourths of them were people’s representatives and leaders of people’s associations of women, youth, teachers, NGOs and voluntary agencies. Through all these efforts, CE as a people’s programme, implemented by AS with government help became widely known and accepted by people.
Elsewhere in India, it has not been all that easy to secure beneficiaries’ participation in CE even when a hefty fare of awareness, knowledge and skill-based programmes were offered free. What made the .22 million people, majority of them from the weaker sections, take a membership in AS by paying a subscription fee, was their perception and valuing of people’s participation and ownership of the programme, in which they felt, they had both a space and stake (Rao, 1999). It was also this large membership that gave the programme the image of people’s partnership, and, in hindsight, one that made possible to continue the CE programme with people’s involvement for over 3 years even when the CE direction at State level went astray and funds were not released.
5.1.3 CE Activities in WG District 1997-1999
Based on NLM Guidelines, WG-ZSS devised five types of programmes, and activities, as below, and planned them in such a way that some were compulsory and others optional.
Educational Programmes
(i) Library & Reading Room
Commenced in 1997, Library and Reading Room activities continue till date in all 1095 CECs.
(ii) Literacy Classes
As part of CEC’s regular activity, 2910 sub-centres were opened to teach basic literacy to non-literates. These continued till 2000 when a second generation TLC (Akshar Sankranti) was taken up for which the CEC Volunteers (Preraks) were re-deployed for monitoring.
(iii) Varam Varam Vignanam [VVV] (a weekly lecture-cum-discussion programme) on development issues by development departments
The VVV programme was conducted non-stop for 108 weeks in all CECs up to September 2000.
Awareness Programmes
Publication of a Neo-literate Broad-sheet, a fortnightly newsletter and reaching it to every CEC was part of awareness programmes. Known as Akshar Deeksha, the 4 page neo-literates newsletter had over 5000 circulation. Considered as the pride of WG-CE, Akshar Deeksha was the most effective communication and dialogue channel between CECs and ZSS, with at least 100 letters a fortnight from readers and Preraks. ZSS was planning to convert it into a self-financing venture by pricing it, but was not fortunate to get the gestation period with subsidy.
Quality of Life Improvement
Programmes (QLIP)
QLIPs included activities on food and nutrition, health, hygiene and sanitation, expenditure and savings.
Skill
Development
Programmes (SDPs)
SDPs introduced in 830 CECs included preparation of pain balms, detergents, soaps, basket weaving, lace making, embroidery, candle making, etc.
Recreational Programmes
Sports and games and cultural competitions were organized and national days and events were
celebrated by Akshar Sangams wholly through community initiative and contributions.
5.2 Sustainability of Innovative Programmes
People’s CE Programme: Promising Features, Partnership Failures and
Consequences
The Community Involvement-endearing features of WG’s CE Programme that were critical for its success are worth noting:

• Crystal clear policy that sanction of CEC only to such villages which forms an association of neo-literates – Akshar Sangam, with at least 250 members.
• Membership to AS only by paying a fee and this as the only basis of forming an AS.
• A clear set of rules from ZSS, governing formation of AS, including the election to its EC and its composition of 9 members.
• The election to the AS-EC, of mainly those people who took an active interest in forming the AS, canvassing membership and collecting Corpus Funds.
• Affiliation to, and eligibility to receive funds from ZSS only those AS that fulfilled all formalities indicated in ZSS rules.
• A separate set of rules governing funds management, AS being required to submit a quarterly report of their accounts to the ZSS.
• In Corpus Fund collection, a clear policy against collecting large donations from one or two individuals or naming the CEC after them so that the principle of collective leadership is not compromised.
• Stipulation of a critical minimum of amount of Rs. 10,000, for Corpus Fund, to have an adequate amount, kept in a 5 year fixed bank deposit, the interest from which, along with annual membership fee, could help CECs to carry on its activities when state funding ends.
• All CECs, as did in WG, to function in government or public premises – a conscious decision, to facilitate people to access the CECs without any inhibition and create an atmosphere conducive to increase people’s participation and management.

By all accounts and especially in respect of community response, the WG-CE had a glorious run for over 3 years. This despite with only 50% of first year (1997) grant from NLM, and similarly, only the first installment from ZSS to AS in charge of each CEC. Procedural wrangles that seemed to mark NLM’s emerging approach to literacy movement delayed funds release for well over three years, and thereby sapped the motivation of even the most ardent activists of CE. The lessons, when Government’s partnership role fails, as seen from WG’s CE experience, point to the following – much the same in CE Programmes elsewhere:

• Local initiatives for a programme like CE cannot be sustained for long period without the back up support and inputs at every stage, especially for expanding and strengthening the scope of people’s management, in respect of funds, programme flexibility and autonomy of CE association.
• The initial understanding of CE Scheme with flexibility in programmes and certain autonomy in financial matters implied a facilitative role by government – the ZSS. This autonomy and flexibility was replaced with government control.
• A vision of fully equipped CEC with a five year assured funding and timely flow of funds for an activity packed CE, as in NLM CE Guidelines -- was canvassed. Zss’ release of funds was partial, the reason being non-receipt of grants from NLM or State government. Ill-equipped CECs and inability to take up the programmes promised, created credibility crisis of ZSS among the public.
• Library in CEC as the basis to sustain a reading environment could be some achievement even if target specific programmes could not be undertaken. The inability to develop library with a good collection of interesting books, rendered it unattractive.
• Target specific programmes not taking off due to its non-sanction and/or non-release of funds disappointed the organized groups like the SHGs, which mobilized members for AS. Beneficiaries’ disillusion led to drop in their participation in CE activities, as happened in WG.
• A voluntary informal group is essential to mobilize people’s participation in a non-formal sector like literacy and CE. This idea was taken forward with greater social sanctity in WG through fee linked membership to Akshar Sangam and election for its EC. The principle of election did not violate ASS’ voluntary character, and its 9 member EC allowed for wider representation. The substitution of this voluntary body by an officially constituted committee by State Government, took away autonomy and flexibility of Akshar Sangam and its EC and brought in bureaucratization of the programme and stringency about use of funds. This typified the emerging trend everywhere (Mathew, 2002). The policy trend towards the literacy movement has been characterized by (a) a certain loss of priority to the programme and turning it into yet another routine government programme at national, state and district levels; and (b) a slowdown in funds flow. WG-CE was fortunate to receive the second installment by 2000 end. CE programmes elsewhere were not so fortunate. Initial grant for first 6 months was all they had, and languished for 3-4 years before receiving next installment and may now be battling to pick up broken threads in the pursuit of creating a learning society.

Chapter 4 - Management and Funding of Literacy

4. Management and Funding of Literacy

4.1 National Level

National Literacy Mission is the nodal authority at national level in charge of adult education in the country. NLM consists of a General Body and an Executive Committee, the former, headed by Minister of Human Resource Development, and Executive Committee, by Secretary, Department of Elementary Education and Literacy, MHRD. NLM is located in the Bureau of Adult Education, headed by Joint Secretary who also acts as DG (NLM). Within the overall perspective as embodied in EFA-National Plan of Action, NLM manages adult and continuing programmes in the country and all supporting institutions at State (e.g., State Resource Centres) and District levels, like Jan Shikshan Sansthans (JSS [People’s Education Centres] have been set up to undertake vocational and life skills programmes for the educationally and socio-economically disadvantaged youths and adults in urban and rural areas, including neo-literates of the literacy movement). Other than NLM as part of Department of Elementary Education and Literacy, there is no inter-ministerial coordination body in respect of policy and management for adult education at Central level.

4.1.1 State Level

The counterpart of NLMA at State level, the SLMA is headed by Chief Minister and Education Minister, and its Executive Committee headed by Chief Secretary and Education Secretary. Both these bodies at State level are represented by Ministries with line departments like agriculture, health and family welfare, rural/community development, women and child development, social welfare, etc. Major policy decisions and strategies concerning management of adult and continuing education at state level are made in SLMAs, like in NLMA at national level.

4.1.2 Literacy Funding System

The Literacy and Continuing Education programmes for adults in India is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme, an initiative of Central Government, with 2:1 Central and State funding system for initial basic literacy – TLC and PLC, and the five year Continuing Education Programme, with 100% Central Funding for first three years and 50% sharing by State Government for third and fourth year. After its approval, NLM transfers the funds to SLMA for TLC, PLP and CE proposals submitted by SLMA, which along with state share, sends it to ZSS.

4.1.3 Role of Other Government Departments/Agencies in Adult Education

While there is no explicit policy directive for an inter-ministerial engagement either in management or implementation at Central or State level, such an approach has invariably been adopted at District level as a facilitative mechanism for implementing adult literacy and continuing education programmes. Especially in CE programme at district level, the ZSS makes use of grassroots networks under the aegis of different Ministries like Ministry of Youth Development and Sports (e.g. network of youth clubs known as Nehru Yuvak Kendras), Ministry of Rural Development (e.g. SHGs), etc. This is part of the flexibility in implementation modality left to ZSS, as a deliberate policy measure by NLM (NLM, n.d.).

4.2 Role of Non-Governmental Actors in Literacy

In the strategies to be adopted for achieving EFA, Dakar Framework clearly enjoined national governments to ensure that civil society organizations are systematically represented not only in formulation of EFA-NPA, but also its implementation. In deference to this mandate, EFA-NPA formulation process in India was marked by national level consultations exclusively with NGOs, and also in regional meetings with government education agencies. The inputs received through these consultative meetings were built into developing the national perspectives in respect of the EFA goals (MHRD, 2003: viii). This has been a distinct tradition, in fact, a mandate as perceived by NLM from the very beginning in its engagement in adult education (MHRD, 1988). The influence of the non-government sector, i.e., people from outside the administration, in shaping the policy and approach to the literacy movement was far greater than that witnessed in primary education. It would be hard to recall a government funded programme with so much say for social activists, NGOs, and progressive minded individuals in civil society in the leadership, planning, management and monitoring as in the TLCs. In fact, the very concept of TLC itself came from the non-government side. The KSSP in Kerala and its counterpart at the national level, the Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti (BGVS) were the architects of this approach, and BGVS remained the official partner of NLM till mid-1990s. This spirit of the people’s movement approach and implementation methods of TLCs, especially the partnership between district and NGOs and civil society’s different organizations and networks at grassroots levels, continues to inform NLM policy even today and in fact, in a more pronounced manner in the CE programmes (NLM, 1994; Athreya and Chunkat, 1996, Ramachandran, 1998; Mathew, 1999).

The text submitted to the Expert Group on “Evolution of Strategy under the NLM”, by the government could be treated as the authentic position regarding the role and involvement of the NGO sector in the literacy movement, and hence could bear a little detailed mention. Referring to the shift from government-controlled, center-based approach, the government admitted that “the real breakthrough came, not out of wisdom internal to NLM but with an experiment in mass literacy campaign initiated in … Ernakulum district in Kerala in 1989. This was not a government sponsored programme implemented by the District Administration but under the leadership provided by the District Literacy Society which had a few persons from the District Administration but also people from all different sections and backgrounds. The campaign for total literacy in Ernakulum … saw a fusion between the district administration headed by its Collector, voluntary groups, social activists and others, and was spearheaded by the Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP [an NGO]).” Referring to those campaigns initiated immediately after the Ernakulum TLC, in States like AP, Karnataka, West Bengal, Union Territory of Pondicherry, etc., the government openly admitted that “A perusal of literacy campaign proposals from the districts of Kerala, … and others which were placed before … NLM … shows that the proposals merely mention that they are submitted for campaigns based on the model of the Ernakulam, [and] … are indicative of the fact that the Ernakulam campaign strategy was adopted as such by the NLMA in other districts… As of August 1994, NLM had approved literacy campaigns in as many as 275 district and post-literacy campaigns in as many as 100 districts. The basic model in all these literacy campaign projects is the same as in the Ernakulam campaign” (NLM, 1994: 8-9). It is clear that a major non-government say in the approach and strategy and presence in organizational structures and management and monitoring system at District, Block and village levels was the distinct feature of the literacy movement. Social activism and voluntarism and partnership with civil society as the guiding philosophy and principle of the mass literacy campaign provided a new road map even for formal school education, as could be observed in the externally funded primary education programmes in the 1990s. But within the literacy movement, there are innumerable examples of enduring programmes which assiduously strengthened its people’s movement character and facets in its design and implementation methods withstanding the vagaries of irregular funds flow from the state and active support of district administration. The perspective of partnership with civil society was further reiterated in “NLM Thrust Areas” in EFA-NPA: “The District Literacy Society (ZSS), the autonomous body which implements and oversees the literacy, post-literacy and continuing education programmes would have freedom now to use grassroots participatory networks like youth clubs, mahila mandas (women groups), voluntary agencies and local self-government bodies like Panchayats, cooperatives, etc., as partners in CE implementation.” (MHRD, 2003: 85). In fact, in the implementation of the Accelerated Female Literacy Programmes taken up after 2001 in low female literacy districts by NLM, the NGOs have been the implementing agencies in States like Uttar Pradesh.

4.3 Interaction between Government and Civil Society

In its very genesis, NLM was conceptualized not as a routine government programme but to make literacy as a people’s mission (MHRD, 1988). The mass campaign for literacy undertaken under NLM auspices, called TLC, had come to be 22 recognized as literacy movement and people’s movement (MHRD, 1992; Mathew, 2000). Certain crucial facets of TLC’s planning and implementation illustrated how the plank, the content and substance of government-civil society interaction in literacy programme had transformed it) into a people’s movement, marking a fundamental and qualitative change of this interaction, and re-defined it. These included the Environment Building campaign, as part of TLC pre-launch preparations, the participatory organizational-management structure at village, Block and District levels, etc. The TLC model, as an epitome of people’s involvement, and administration-civil society partnership its central implementation approach was acknowledged, endorsed and reiterated in NPE’s Programme of Action, 1992 (MHRD, 1992). NLM guidelines on implementation of TLC, PLP and CE have repeatedly emphasized this intent and content of interaction as the very philosophy and the central strategy in the programme’s implementation (NLM, 1996 [a]; [b]).

The government-civil society interaction intent was consciously built in Continuing Education programmes, when NLM stressed that “CECs must be perceived by the people as arising from their own initiatives to meet their explicit needs, and developed as people’s institution in the true sense of the term. And, ZSS was expected to devise all possible ways and means to elicit community support …” (emphasis added. NLM, 1996 [a]: 27).

4.4 Significance of External Aid Efforts to Improve Literacy Levels

External assistance has mainly been for primary and elementary education sector. Externally funded primary education programmes’ focus has been on improving the provision of primary and efficiency of primary education system in retention, participation and successful completion, with less dropouts and greater proportion of students in acquiring minimum levels of learning. The major contribution for the increase in literacy rate between 1991 and 2001 has been primary education (Mehta, 2002) -- primary education programmes as a whole, both externally funded and others under government purview (Ramachandran, 2002; MHRD, 2001).

Chapter 3. Long-term Objectives and Commitments for Literacy

3. Long-term Objectives and Commitments for Literacy
   
   3.1 National Level
   With the global EFA 2000 Assessment and Dakar Forum occurring in between, the Ninth Plan (1977-2002) marks a transition phase that witnessed a new set of objectives and target deadlines set up for literacy in India. With most districts in the country getting covered under TLC, NLM focus during IX Plan shifted to reorganizing Post-Literacy Programmes. On Continuing Education front, NLM was trying to figure out ways of providing sustained support to CE programmes. These shifts in focus were facilitated by the Cabinet approving some very significant changes in NLM’s activities, described as “revamping of NLM” (MHRD, 2001: 111).
   The Cabinet approved changes as reported in its EFA 2000 Assessment, and Dakar Declarations as a reference point, Tenth Plan Working Group identified the priority areas in adult literacy programme: adult illiteracy as basically the problem of disadvantaged social groups like the SCs and STs, including women, and therefore, calling for special efforts to remove the obstacles to their participation in the literacy programmes (MHRD, 2001: 113-14). The same has been endorsed and adopted in the final Plan as well (Planning Commission, 2002: 67).
   The goals, targets and strategies approved by Tenth Plan (Planning Commission, 2002: 85) in respect of NLM relate to:
   • Achieving … literacy… level of 75% by 2005;
   • Covering all left over districts [through amalgamated TL-PL programmes] by 2005;
   • Removing residual illiteracy in the existing [CE] districts by 2004-05;
   • Completing Post-Literacy in all districts; and
   • Launching CE Programmes in 100 [more] districts before the end of Plan period [it was 152 districts in 2002].
   •  
   • 3.1.1 Literacy in EFA-National Plan of Action, 2003: Continuation of
     
     “Revamped” Directions and Re-focus in Strategies
     In the light of EFA goals and targets set up in Dakar Framework for Action and clearly aligned to social and gender equity thrusts, NLM felt the necessity to effect a certain re-focusing of its strategies pursued since 1999. The EFA-NPA’s new “thrust areas” in literacy include (MHRD, 2003: 85):
     ❖ Achievement of 75 per cent literacy level by 2007.
     ❖ A multi-pronged strategy to address regional, social and gender disparities in literacy.
     ❖ Refocusing literacy, post-literacy and CE programmes to increase and strengthen women’s participation, so as to bridge gender gap in literacy.
     ❖ Encouraging PL and CE districts to pay special attention on mobilization and organization of women into neo-literate and self-help groups (SHGs).
     ❖ Special attention to socially disadvantaged groups like SCs/STs and women.
     ❖ 45 districts with <30 % female literacy rate selected for a multi-pronged strategy to raise female literacy.
     ❖ Special stress with ZSS to specifically highlight strategies to take up literacy and skill upgradation programmes for SCs/STs and women in particular. The overriding priority of NLM at present is to address the 45 low female literacy districts, and residual illiteracy in other areas, which broadly coincides with illiteracy concentration among socio-economically disadvantaged sections and pockets. But even by doing this, it is doubtful if NLM can bring about 75% literacy rate by 2007, because, by its own estimate, “the present (2003) literacy rate of 64 per cent will improve to around 80 per cent by the year 2015”, and, “India can be placed in the category of countries which are likely to reach adult literacy rates of 70-90 percent in the year 2015”. By the same reckoning, NLM also admits that “to achieve the Dakar goal of halving the illiteracy rate by 2015, India needs to reduce illiteracy rate by 20 per cent” and, “India is likely to reach this goal by 2015 in terms of halving the illiteracy percentage from 40 per cent in 2000 to 20 per cent by 2015” ( MHRD, 2003: 84).
     3.2 Long-term Commitments and Objectives for Literacy: Some States
     3.2.1 Andhra Pradesh
     As part of its commitment to make Andhra Pradesh (AP) not just a literate state but a knowledge society, the Government’s primary goal since 2000 has been to increase overall literacy level to over 95% by 2005. Taking stock of the literacy scenario in the year 2000, and with a view to accelerate the pace to achieve the literacy target by 2005, a state-wide (district-wise) massive, community-based literacy campaign called Akshara Sankranti Programme (ASP) was launched in October 2000. On actual count, the numbers enrolled in the first round itself – 6 million – turned out to be more than the initial assessment of 5 million in 2000. Including the subsequent mopping up rounds that covered the left outs as well as drop outs and slow learners of earlier rounds, as per official reports, 11.85 million illiterates were enrolled, and 6.45 million of them were made literate between 2000 and 2003. (NIEPA-UNESCO, 2003: 27-28). This programme still continues, taking up residual illiterates. AP is the only State in India that has moved beyond NLM visualized (5 year duration) CE to conceptualizing an institutional framework for lifelong learning, by establishing a Community Learning Centre (CLC) in each village – Gram Panchayat. CLC is visualized as nodal point for converging all activities of open schooling, libraries and CECs. The CLC scheme is still at a nascent stage. (NIEPA-UNESCO, 2003: 28).
     3.2.2 Madhya Pradesh
     Taking note of the unenviable record of TLC approach which made .54 million adults literate in 9 years, Madhya Pradesh (MP) evolved its own strategy for literacy, moving away from the standardized national model. The new strategy was grounded on the principle of collectivity and incentivisation and convergence of literacy with nascent economic activities – principles chosen, bearing in mind, and sustainability of literacy pursuit through PL and CE stages. The programme anchored on these principles was the Literacy-Improvement Campaign (Padhna Badhna Andolan), taken up by their society (Padhna Badhna Samiti [PBS]). Started in 1999, MP reported 217,000 PBS, enrolling 5.18 million learners, and 2.98 million clearing the external evaluation. 57,000 of the 217,000 PBS (over 90% of them being women groups) were subsequently re-positioned as SHGs, taking up their literacy consolidation and savings, and moved from PL to CE stages. As a result of its vigorous EGS and PBA efforts, MP recorded an unprecedented jump of 20% in literacy in 1990s, with the 2001 Census reporting a literacy rate of 64.11%, nearly lifting it out of its erstwhile educationally backward state status. MP also has the unique distinction – of being the first and only State -- of brining in adult education provisions as an integral part of education as a Fundamental Right (NIEPA- UNESCO, 2003: 118-22).
     3.3 Formal and Non-formal Education: The Relative Dimension of Long-term
     Objectives and Commitments
     The EFA Goals covering formal and non-formal education adopted in Dakar Framework for Action set up 2015 as deadline. India, however, preferred a deadline far ahead, i.e., 2010 to achieve these same goals. In setting up ambitious targets, and target deadlines, there is no difference in India’s EFA-NPA between non-formal and formal education. But this equality of sectors or its targets is not matched either in respect of relative share of funds allocation or fund lows. The funds requirements indicated for elementary education, including mid-day meals and girls education represented 77.65% of the Rs. 952,770 million funds for EFA, and for adult education, with Rs. 6340 million, including Post-Literacy and Continuing Education, it stood at 0.66% (Planning Commission, 2002).
     This implies that the education of 167.76 (6-14 age) million children attending school in 2000 (Planning Commission, 2003: 34), the funds requirement indicated in EFA-NPA works out to be Rs. 567 per child. For literacy (100 million) and CE (100 million) of adults, the indicated funds requirement works out to be Rs. 31.7 per person –, indicating the relative priorities of the sectors within EFA. For every Re.1 spent by government on literacy and continuing education of an adult, it spends Rs. 17.8 on a child’s schooling.
     The relative priority of elementary education and adult education within EFA- NPA can also be seen in the systems of funds flow. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the flagship programme for UEE under EFA directly releases funds to state implementing societies, which in turn transfers it, along with state share, to bank accounts maintained by village education or school management committees, that manage and account for all expenditure of the school (MHRD, 2003: 92). The funds flow system for adult literacy and CE programmes is from NLM to the State Literacy Mission Authority (SLMA) which would then transfer it to Zilla Sakshratha Samiti (ZSS), which is expected to channel it below (SLMA is NLMA’s counterpart at the State level and ZSS is the implementing agency at district level). This is a total reversal of the earlier system of funds transfer from NLM directly to ZSS, a model that SSA has borrowed but NLM abandoned, allowing return of the proverbial red tape and perennial uncertainty and delays between sanction and actual receipt of funds, with so many layers in between.
     Literacy and Continuing Education of adults is an integral part of EFA-NPA, but within EFA, it remains an insignificant entity, with all the priority, in policy and funding, going for the education of school age children --UEE.
     3.4 Extent of Integration of Literacy Policies in EFA Plan and Poverty Reduction
     Strategies
     Prior to the EFA Decade of 1990s, education as basic right or entitlement was confined to the education of children. Even the Constitutional mandate to the State was only about providing free and compulsory education to all children up to 14 years of age. It was only after the Jomtien Declaration, namely education as a fundamental right for all people, women and men, of all ages, that such an approach had also become part of India’s policy discourse. Even during 1990s, and despite endorsing the rights approach to basic education for “every person – child, youth and adult”, India followed the sectoral rather than an integrated or holistic approach in EFA, that entails not only shared perspective, but also inter-sectoral coordination. This, however, changed after Dakar Declaration. Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE), primary education, literacy and CE and life skills programmes for youth and adults, have come to be treated as an integral part of EFA, as evident in the Tenth Plan document (Planning Commission, 2002). A similar integrated approach has been adopted in India’s EFA-NPA (2003) as well. Now, for example, ECCE programmes, although administered by a different Ministry, is treated as an integral part of the EFA endeavor, and so are the initiatives for girls education (MHRD. 2003). In the matter of education of school age children, there is a pervasive and overarching emphasis and orientation of reaching out to the socio-economically disadvantaged and marginalized sections and pockets, girls in particular. This is anchored in the understanding that education is an instrument of socio-economic improvement more urgently needed in case of the disadvantaged sections. The very focus of whole range of incentives in universal free elementary education drive across all states is to align and strengthen the poverty-reduction edge in the education of socio-economically disadvantaged sections, without which education would remain an unaffordable luxury. Though not explicitly articulated, this is also the approach in adult literacy and CE programmes.