Food For Thought - Relationships are precious

     When I got home that night as my wife served dinner, I held her hand and said, I've got something to tell you... She sat down and ate quietly. Again I observed the hurt in her eyes.

 Suddenly I didn't know how to open my mouth. But I had to let her know what I was thinking. I want a divorce... I raised the topic calmly.

 She didn't seem to be annoyed by my words, instead she asked me softly, why?  I avoided her question. This made her angry. She threw away the chop sticks and shouted at me, you are not a man! That night, we didn’t talk to each other. She was weeping. I knew she wanted to find out what had happened to our marriage. But I could hardly give her a satisfactory answer; she had lost my heart to Dew. I didn't love her anymore. I just pitied her!

 With a deep sense of guilt, I drafted a divorce agreement which stated that she could own our house, our car, and 30% stake of my company...

 She glanced at it and then tore it into pieces. The woman who had spent ten years of her life with me had become a stranger. I felt sorry for her wasted time, resources and energy but I could not take back what I had said for I loved Dew so dearly. Finally she cried loudly in front of me, which was what I had expected to see. To me her cry was actually a kind of release. The idea of divorce which had obsessed me for several weeks seemed to be firmer and clearer now.

 The next day, I came back home very late and found her writing something at the table. I didn't have supper but went straight to sleep and fell asleep very fast because I was tired after an eventful day with Dew.

 When I woke up, she was still there at the table writing. I just did not care so I turned over and was asleep again.

 In the morning she presented her divorce conditions: she didn't want anything from me, but needed a month's notice before the divorce.

 She requested that in that one month we both struggle to live as normal a life as possible. Her reasons were simple: our son had his exams in a month's time and she didn't want to disrupt him with our broken marriage.

 This was agreeable to me. But she had something more, she asked me to recall how I had carried her into out bridal room on our wedding day.

 She requested that every day for the month's duration I carry her out of our bedroom to the front door every morning. I thought she was going crazy... Just to make our last days together bearable I accepted her odd request.


 I told Dew about my wife's divorce conditions... She laughed loudly and thought it was absurd. No matter what tricks she applies, she has to face the divorce, she said scornfully...

 My wife and I hadn't had anybody contact since my divorce intention was explicitly expressed. So when I carried her out on the first day, we both appeared clumsy. Our son clapped behind us, daddy is holding mummy in his arms. His words brought me a sense of pain. From the bedroom to the sitting
room, then to the door, I walked over ten meters with her in my arms. She closed her eyes and said softly; don’t tell our son about the divorce. I nodded, feeling somewhat upset. I put her down outside the door. She went to wait for the bus to work. I drove alone to the office.

On the second day, both of us acted much more easily. She leaned on my chest. I could smell her gentle fragrance. I realized that I hadn’t looked at this woman carefully for a long time... I realized she was not young any more. There were fine wrinkles on her face, her hair was graying! Our marriage had taken its toll on her. For a minute I wondered what I had done to her.

 On the fourth day, when I lifted her up, I felt a sense of intimacy returning. This was the woman who had given ten years of her life to me.

 On the fifth and sixth day, I realized that our sense of intimacy was growing again. I didn't tell Dew about this. It became easier to carry her as the month slipped by. Perhaps the everyday workout made me stronger.

 She was choosing what to wear one morning. She tried on quite a few dresses but could not find a suitable one. Then she sighed, "All my dresses have grown bigger." I suddenly realized that she had grown so thin, that was the reason why I could carry her more easily.

Suddenly it hit me... she had buried so much pain and bitterness in her heart. Subconsciously I reached out and touched her head.

 Our son came in at the moment and said, Dad, it's time to carry mum out. To him, seeing his father carrying his mother out had become an essential part of his life. My wife gestured to our son to come closer and hugged him tightly. I turned my face away because I was afraid I might change my mind
at this last minute. I then held her in my arms, walking from the bedroom, through the sitting room, to the hallway.  Her hand surrounded my neck softly and naturally. I held her body tightly; it was just like our wedding day.

 But her much lighter weight made me sad. On the last day, when I held her in my arms I could hardly move a step. Our son had gone to school.  I held her tightly and said, I hadn't noticed that our life lacked
intimacy.

 I drove to office.... jumped out of the car swiftly without locking the door. I was afraid any delay would make me change my mind.... I walked upstairs. Dew opened the door and I said to her, Sorry, Dew, I do not want the divorce anymore.

 She looked at me, astonished, and then touched my forehead. Do you have a fever? She said. I moved her hand off my head. Sorry, Dew, I said, I won't divorce. My marriage life was boring probably because she and I didn't value the details of our lives, not because we didn’t love each other anymore. Now I realize that since I carried her into my home on our wedding day I am supposed to hold her until death does apart.

 Dew seemed to suddenly wake up. She gave me a loud slap and then slammed the door and burst into tears. I walked downstairs and drove away.

 At the floral shop on the way, I ordered a bouquet of flowers for my wife. The sales girl asked me what to write on the card. I smiled and wrote, I'll carry you out every morning until death do us apart.

That evening I arrived home, flowers in my hands, a smile on my face, I ran upstairs, only to find my wife in the bed - dead....... I cried and cried uncontrollably and carried her for the last time from the room to the hall with tears streaming down my face and gazing at my only son, his tears rolling from his eyes, they made me cry even more.  I had lost my love, my wife and a loving and caring mother and nothing I could do now to put the clock backward... I had all the time now to look at her motionless body in detail but I knew it was going to be only for a short while until she made her last journey to the Lord..... I held my son and wept again and again thinking of all the  things I did not do for her when she was still alive....... & placed  gently the flowers in her hands with my tears trickling on them.......
 she was gone forever, all my tears would not bring her back .

 The small details of your lives are what really matter in a relationship. It is not the mansion, the car, property, the money in the bank. These create an environment conducive for happiness but cannot give happiness in themselves. So find time to be your spouse’s friend and do those little things for each other that build intimacy.
 Do have a real happy marriage!

 THE TIME IS ALWAYS RIGHT TO DO WHAT IS RIGHT

 Moral of the story is to value all the things we possess, once they are gone we have nothing but regrets!

Education for All

Education for All

The provision of basic education for all children and adults became a concern of the international community in the 1980s. Initially the mood of the late 1970s led to the promotion of mass adult literacy campaigns for the purpose of “eradicating illiteracy by the year 2000”. As a result of the onset of the grave economic recession in most of the Third World countries, there was a state withdrawal of commitment and involvement in all levels of education, more particularly, basic education of children and adults. In trying to re-assure the commitment for EFA, the Third World countries which were reeling the crisis of economic recession and consequent structural adjustment, either totally withdrew from the education sector or paying attention only on formal primary education, to the neglect of adult education. Even when the EFA momentum returned with huge foreign aid, it came with severe conditionality.

The result was the skewed priority within EFA to UPE and UEE, at the cost of adult literacy and adult education, and thus, pushing the EFA target deadline in respect of literacy and adult education farther and farther, from the initial deadline of 2000 to now 2015.

India, however, had a peculiar turn of events, viz., combining the EFA wave with an MLC approach in respect of literacy, and connecting it with the primary education as part of the EFA agenda. Even though India did not come under the revolutionary environment, it adopted the MLC approach with a radical content as in other countries, undergoing socialist transformation through the literacy campaign.

In the case of India, there was an attempt to interlink literacy with primary education as part of the EFA, and also all other development departments so that the illiterates get the benefits of all anti-poverty programmes of the government. What is noteworthy is the radical content even in the absence of a revolutionary milieu, which gave a lot of hope both to the learners and the activists involved in the campaign implementation, and connected the fervor to push for UPE.

Conclusion

Some of the salient points that pervaded the survey of perceptions about objectives, knowledge, awareness and skills related learning components in the content and curriculum of adult education through the different decades could be abstracted. One is the centrality and continuity of certain core dimensions of knowledge and values of adult education. Second is the precedence of certain focus of the components at certain programme format phases, at least in theory, not negating all other dimensions, but generally sidelining them, in the context of predominance given to certain specific aspects – the focus of adult education during different thematic and programmatic phases are cases in point. These two facets of the profile of adult education also corresponds to the trends at the global level – the focus of adult education in India could be seen as a window to the trends in the world in the area of adult education, at least at certain phases. These continuities and changes are highlighted through the prism of curriculum and content focuses rather than as history of organization and management of the adult education programme in different phases.

Literacy and adult education was a political strategy of social mobilization to participate in the nationalist movement and hold the nation in highest esteem in respect of unity and diversity, and the desire for democracy as the vision of the nation. There was no mistake about this focus of adult education during the nationalist movement; besides these, adult education was to serve as the channel of social cohesion, solidarity, fellowship, etc. Adult education spans across all facets of life and should address all the learning needs of all these facets. Adult education is not complete only with learning materials, howsoever comprehensive and all-inclusive. Its pedagogical scope includes, besides the curriculum and content contained in the syllabus, also awareness and learning by demonstration and hands-on.

The efficacy and versatility of this approach was variously demonstrated through the various programme formats and the broadening of the vision of adult education and how to make it more effective. However, the basic core and crux of adult education has always revolved around health and hygiene, knowledge, awareness and skills to improve in economic condition and addressing other forms of socio-cultural, political and gender inequalities. However, its proactive conversion into reality in any substantive degree always eluded.

The pre-occupation of social education, was an education in citizenship, democracy, community development. Values of democracy was the burden of adult education while the development perspective was on modern development, on building factories, dams and roads and formal education from lower to higher level, with specific emphasis on higher and technological education. This dualism on the part of the leadership was not in sync with the illiterate adults with respect to their life and its needs – the reason why social education did not even touch 3% of India’s target population in respect of their participation (SY Shah, 1999).

Adult education had certain crux in respect of real emphasis in the lives of non-literate adults in rural and urban areas – literacy, health, livelihood and socio-political participation without exploitation and oppression. Whenever all these concerns were addressed effectively, there was no problem about learner response – the much dreaded prospect of lack of interest and motivation in adult education: the Gram Shikshan Mohim and the literacy movement during the initial years in the early 1990s are cases in point.

It is interesting to see that India dabbled for a time to validate the human capital approach that suffered in India from lack of sincerity with respect to the constituency it sought to address – the poor, landless and the rural illiterate adults. It also serves to remind about the fringe nature of the programme with reference to the concerns and needs addressed in India. The Farmers Functional Literacy Programme is a reminder in this regard. It must also be said that the FFLP was a classic example of the efficacy of learning and application as more effective and improvement-oriented. Adult education is a cross cutting by nature: it suffered on this score all through for lack of sincere effort.

This paper’s pre-occupation with policy intentions and pronouncements served as the benchmark in designing curriculum and content and topics for learning. It must have been ideal to show and demonstrate the continuity and change in curriculum focuses from actual lessons through the primers and different programme forms over last 6 decades – for scarcity of time and paucity of materials, only the lessons of primers from two States during TLC could be marshaled; but that illustrates the continuity of central concerns in adult education in a development milieu like India. The transition from national focus in aspects of learning to locally relevant and diversified content, as seen during the NFE phase was a slow build up to its centrality in policy perspective during the TLCs, especially in the PL and CE phases. More importantly, the FLAW programme was the harbinger of women needs-specific learning components in content and curriculum. It is another matter that it was a highly stereotypical gender reinforcing focus.

India was no Vietnam, China, Tanzania, Cuba or Nicaragua in respect of a society under a socialist transformation. Yet under the NAEP, there was a breath of fresh air about literacy becoming a hope for the exploited, oppressed poor illiterates in rural and urban areas as an instrument of liberation. The channel was critical pedagogy through dialogical process, organization and active participation in the development process to secure the benefits of the anti-poverty laws and schemes. NAEP stood out, with an agonizing briefness, as a hope, soon to disappoint, by its supersession by other programmes with only lip service in the content and intent of curriculum and pedagogy.

As an internal reiteration and benchmarks for organizing adult education in an incrementalist milieu and perspective, a few key points underscored by the Review Committee on NAEP have been portrayed such as development with social justice, family planning, health care, cultural creativity, etc. In hindsight and retrospect, one could appreciate how such stresses continued to guide and pervade curriculum and content in adult education ever thereafter.

At least in respect of adult education, what is seen as the bible in policy domains, the NPE, 1986, its POA and even its revision in 1992 and the corresponding POA, seem to follow the perspective – knowledge, awareness, values and skills domains chartered in the Review Committee in 1980. It was shown to be a reiteration of the convictions of the Review Committee in terms of broadening and deepening of the content in respect of awareness and functionality.

It is also a reminder about the policy premise in a non-revolutionary milieu like India that the illiterate poor can rise to their own liberation. The idea behind highlighting and dilating policy premises and operational elaborations is remind how these were guideposts for curriculum and content in the primers and other learning materials later on. The eternal values of these incremental benefits in terms of aspirations of the oppressed non-literates about the vision of India, and also of the educated who design the vision of India through adult education are shown from the NCFAE. The comparison of India’s literacy movement through the TLCs with the MLCs highlights the Indian engagement with the exploited and deprived non-literates on the agenda of the scope and possibilities of at least partially addressing and redressing the impediments they face. It also shows that even the extremely limited success and scope in this direction is a deliberate and considered alternative to the status quo and fatalism of the non-literates – this and direction as ethically and morally edifying engagement in behalf of the poor and the pedagogy for a better India.

Evolution of Global Trends in Adult Education

Evolution of Global Trends in Adult Education

Fundamental Education (1945-1964)

Literacy as a fundamental human right is one of the central tents of the covenants of Unesco in its formation. But Unesco quickly abandoned the traditional concept of literacy, referring simply to reading and writing skills as an end in itself and the term fundamental education was adopted as it served as the starting point to promote personal a\development and community progress. Fundamental education was eventually merged with the perspective of “community development”, imparting community development messages to adults (Lind and Johnston, 1990: 31-32). At the international level, with Unesco as the ideational spearhead, the values behind fundamental education as was seen to be co-terminus with community development ideals and this to be imparted through the vernaculars. Use of vernacular languages was perceived to be a more effective method of imparting values of community education.

A series of studies about the effectiveness of the use of vernacular language as medium and more effective method, sponsored by the Unesco gave rise to the realization of the need to leave it to local contexts, with respect to the language and method. Fundamental education approach was found to be a weak strategy in eradication of illiteracy or even as vehicle of community development values and ideals (Lind and Johnston, 1990: 70-71).

Functional Literacy (1965 – 1974)

The World Conference of Education Ministers on the Eradication of Illiteracy organized by Unesco at Teheran in 1965 declared that rather than an end in itself, literacy should be regarded as a way of preparing man for a social, civic and economic role that goes for beyond the limits of rudimentary literacy training, consisting merely in the teaching of reading and writing. It said that the process of learning to read and write should be made an opportunity for acquiring information that can immediately be used to improve living standards; reading and writing should lead not only to elementary general knowledge but to training for work, increased productivity, a greater participation in civil life, a better understanding of the surrounding world and should, ultimately, open the way to basic human culture (cited in NCERT, 1971: 782).

In pursuance of this, especially in developing countries, national development was viewed as more economic than social. Relieving shortages of domestic skilled manpower and equalizing economic opportunities for all citizens; training adult population to become more productive in economic development — such were the purposes of adult education. Producing skilled manpower in adequate number for various scheme of economic development, such as dams and factories – this was the purpose of adult education. It also became evident that the purpose of adult education depended on the level and type of economic development of the country – industry in the case of Western countries and rural and agricultural development in respect of third world countries.

Thus, rural development became the special focus of adult education in the 1960s in the face of impoverishment of rural areas and the need for agrarian reforms. Training the adult farmer in new techniques and attitudes and training in cooperation and management of credit. Agriculture tended to lag behind other sectors of the economic in practically all the under developed countries, but still absorbs the greater part of their population (Unesco, 1972:15-16). Spearheaded by Unesco, the Experimental World Literacy Project (EWLP) was implemented in 11 countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia.

During the decade of 1960-1970, the adult education programme was mainly geared to economic objectives. Especially in countries like India, Ceylon, Burma, etc., “the Green Revolution and the upliftment of the conditions of the peasantry” was the practical strategy in pursuance of the economic objectives of adult education. Implemented as part of the EWLP, the early success of the Farmers Functional Literacy Programme, as evident in its evaluation, pointed to the need for similar functional education programmes wherever a new technological breakthrough occurs in a economically backward country with a high agricultural potential (Unesco, 1972: 17).

A Turning Point for Literacy and the Conscientisation Approach (1975-1980)

The Declaration of Persepolis in 1975 positioned literacy as an instrument of critical consciousness-raising in relation to political, human and cultural process in general and the condition of illiterates, and leading to their liberation through a process of organization. This turning point was influenced by the assessment of the EWLP made by UNDP/Unesco and by the Freire-inspired radical pedagogical movement in the early seventies. During this period it was agreed in international discourse that functional literacy must be conceived and lead to broader objectives, set out in the programme.

The evaluations of functional literacy was critical of the approach and objectives which viewed its outcomes in narrow economic terms, and excluding women from participation in many cases of production skills taken up. It was seen as an attempt to market a pre-packaged product of literacy-linked to productive skills as the means for development and well-being. The evaluations were critical of leaving out other facets of life of individuals and selected groups from the purview of functional literacy (Lind & Johnston, 1990, 75; Unesco 1985:39).

The Conscientisation Approach to Literacy: Paul Friere was the major spokesperson positioned literacy and practice as an instrument to make it possible for the oppressed illiterates to become aware that they can change their own situation (Freire, 1972 a & b). The conscientisation approach implied that the main task of adult education is to bring about a process of critical reflection that leads to action and change. Education is seen an element in the necessary process of human liberation (Lind and Johnston, 1990: 79).

Paulo Freire did not provide any theory of how to organize a literacy project administratively nor of its evaluation. His ideas about pedagogy and training and motivation, mobilization and engagement of learners in the T-L process and the content served as the basis for emulation across the world. His influence in shaping the view and objective of literacy in the International Conference on Adult Education was unmistakable. The first nationwide Adult Education Programme in India was inspired by his views and objectives.

Mass Literacy Campaign Approach

The mass literacy campaign (MLC) approach that India adopted in 1990s was late in coming, which had a fairly good run across many different countries starting from the 1960s, through the 1970s and 80s cutting across Vietnam, China, Cuba, Nicaragua, Burma, Brazil, Tanzania and Somalia. Even while the EWLP was in full swing in the late 1960s, and Paulo Freire’s ideas were inspiring adult education programmes in many countries, and there was an attempt by Unesco to study the MLC approach (by HS Bhola, studying 8 MLCs, such as USSR, Vietnam, China, Cuba, Burma, Brazil, Tanzania and Somalia), and through an International Conference in Udaipur in 1982, and draw up a blue print for emulation of the MLC approach by many Third World countries with a heavy burden of illiteracy. The Udaipur Seminar adopted a Literacy Declaration for massive literacy efforts:

Only specific campaigns with clearly defined targets can create the sense of urgency, mobilize popular support and marshall all possible resources to sustain mass action, continuity and follow up. It is not enough merely to teach skills linked to general economic development if the poorer classes remain as exploited and disadvantaged as before. A literacy campaign must be seen as a necessary part of a national strategy for overcoming poverty and injustice (cited in Lind and Johnston, 1990: 86-87).

India did not opt for the MLC approach, but opted for Mass Programme of Functional Literacy (MPFL), using the students of schools and colleges as an additional component of their educational dimension. The MLC approach had to wait at least till the close of the 1980s.

Revitalization of Cultural Creativity

Revitalization of Cultural Creativity

Development must aim at meaningful and effective tapping of the massive unutilized reservoir of skills and creative social and cultural energy of the poor and socially neglected majority of our people. Nurturing of the folklore and cultural expressions of the urban and rural poor, the tribals and other peasants is an investment in social capital and also a motivation for participation in adult education (MHRD, 1980: 7).

Following are some of the reference points in designing content and curriculum and the T-L processes that include awareness-oriented interactions, lectures and demonstration. The purpose behind benchmarking these reference points is to treat them for a reality check of their reflection in the literacy movement during the 90s and thereafter in programme design as well as in pedagogy.

The perspective towards national development, the society envisioned and the requisite elements of adult education were viewed as a basic human need and also a part of the right to education. It is a necessary basis for the nation’s striving for democracy and development, and a necessary part of any Basic Minimum Needs nation-wide programme. This entailed a number of implications for curriculum design and pedagogy in the wider sense.

Presaging NPE, 1986 and POA - An Adult Education Movement

The Review Report recommended that the programme of mass adult education has to be a national movement, in which all official, non-official, educational and development agencies are closely involved. It should receive full support of the Government – at the Centre, State and local levels. It should enjoy the goodwill and support of all political parties and the various mass organizations of workers, peasants, women, youth, etc. The educational institutions, the teaching community and students have a special responsibility towards the programme. A large section of the potential learners are workers in industry, mines, plantations, etc. It would, therefore, be essential for employers to make their employees and their families literate and to provide appropriate incentive to them. The media, both traditional and modern, will have to play a far bigger role than at present. There are in the country voluntary organizations devoted to social uplift established under the inspiration of our great leaders. They have a very significant role to play, in promoting innovation and in reaching areas and sections of the population which generally tend to be neglected (MHRD, 1980: 15).

As would be evident later, the points were repeated in NPE, 1986 and it’s POA. Taking note of the successes scored and weaknesses remained in NAEP, the views of the Committee about the future of the programme in scope and organization served to inspire and guide the vision of adult education along the same lines, as borne out, firstly, from the perspective of NPE, 1986 and POA and NLM and the literacy movement through the 1990s and beyond. In respect of widening and deepening of the content, the Committee urged that a programme of adult education should include, besides higher level of literacy to guard against relapse, integration with formal education and to include knowledge of the basic principles of the Constitution, promotion of national integration, and a deepening of the cultural background and awareness about health and family planning, the importance of conservation of environment, the relevance of science and scientific temper for shaping the future. These, as can be seen below, constituted the fourth objective of the NLM.

Functionality

The aim of functionality is improvement of vocational skills and for more productive use of time. Functionality should also include acquisition of skills to supplement one’s income through village industries and activities such as poultry farming and dairying (MHRD, 1980). In the immediate future, these objectives served as guides for curriculum and content to the MPFL as well as other ongoing programmes of adult education (R.Rajan, 2003: 83).

Awareness

Not easy to define, its scope was seen to depend much on the perception, competency and commitment of instructors and supervisors. Awareness means that the poor should become conscious that, to a great degree, they can shape their own future through the interlinking of learning, reflection and concrete action; understand the reasons for their deprivation as embedded in the unequal socio-economic order, and laws and policies for protecting them against such deprivations, and organized action to secure the benefits of such laws (MHRD, 1980).

The assertion in the policy statement that (i) the illiterates and the poor can rise to their own liberation through literacy, dialogue and action; (ii) adult education should emphasize the imparting of literacy skills to persons belonging to the economically and socially deprived sections of the society; and (iii) motivation also depends on awareness among the participants that adult education programme will lead to the advancement of their functional capability for the realization of liberation. These assertions, policy premises and assumptions, first of all, neither did get converted into such liberation -igniting curriculum and content, nor it actually led or was even capable of leading to liberation from socio-economic oppression. Literacy is too feeble an instrument, bereft of other socio-economic transformational changes, to lead to liberation.

During the early 80s, there were a number of programmes in operation under different agencies – such as (i) Rural Functional Literacy Projects (RFLP), (ii) State Adult Education Preogramme (SAEP), (iii) Adult Education Through Students and Youth (under UGC); (iv) Nehru Yuvak Kendras; (v) Non-formal Education for Women and Girls; (vi) Shramik Vidyapeeths; (vii) Central Board of Workers’ Education; (viii) Functional Literacy for Adult Women (FLAW); (ix) Post-Literacy and Follow-up Programme; (x) Adult Education through Voluntary Agencies, (xi) Mass Programme of Functional Literacy (MPFL), etc. Doubtless, every one of these programmes must have had its own primers, specifically aligned to the needs of its learners.

Curriculum Implications of Policy Postulates and Strategies: NPE, 1986 and POA, Bear out Perspectives Envisioned in 1980

The National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 and its Programme of Action (POA), 1986, made clear that “all existing Adult Education Projects would be reviewed and re-organised”, as presaged in 1980. In the context of the strategy for re-organisation and making the existing programmes more effective, the NPE and its POA felt that in respect of certain specific group of beneficiaries, as covered in IRDP, NREP programmes, specific learning inputs would be needed. But, in respect of all other beneficiaries, there would be no change in the curriculum and content (GOI, 1986: 131-32).

However, it needs to be noted that some strategies declared also had the scope and possibility of being reflected as learning and awareness inputs and potential: (i) “active cooperation will be sought from political parties and the mass organizations of workers, peasants, women, youth and students”, and “the district, tehsil and thana level administrative machinery will be involved in National Programme of Adult Education (NPAE) to ensure the support for awareness-oriented adult education programmes — these are examples of such “strategies”, advocated in NPE, 1986 and its POA(GOI, 1986: 131-32). The POA was convinced that adult education is both a process through which effective delivery mechanisms are created for the deprived sections of society, and a forum through which such sections secure information and understanding regarding the processes of development. Hence, it delineated the ways to establish effective linkage between adult education and the various development programmes, like IRDP, NREP, ICDS, FLAW, NYKS, etc (GOI, 1986: 128-29).

NPE 1992 Acknowledged National Involvement in Literacy Movement

Six years after its initial formulation, at time of its revision in 1992, the NPE and its POA acknowledged how the whole nation, as well as its different agencies within and outside the government, as pledged by NPE, 1986, indeed got mobilized and involved itself in the Total Literacy Campaigns of NLM. The NPE came up for revision in the wake of the post-Mandal agitation and Babri Masjid demolition. It was concerned about the erosion of essential values and an increasing cynicism in society, which “has brought to focus the need for readjustments in the curriculum in order to make education a forceful tool for the cultivation of social and moral values”. Vividly reminiscent of the 1980 Review Committee’s recommendations about the future of adult education, the NPE argued that in “our culturally plural society, education should foster universal and eternal values, oriented towards the unity and integration of our people”, so as to “eliminate obscurantism, religious fanaticism, violence, superstition and fatalism” (MHRD, 1992: 36). In the same vein, it went on to assure that NLM will be geared to mount the TLCs to the achievement of national goals such as alleviation of poverty, national integration, environmental conservation, observance of small family norms, promotion of women’s equality, universalisation of primary education, basic health care, energisation of cultural creativity of the people and their active participation in the development process (MHRD, 1992: 15).

The POA (1992) reiterated the NPE’s conviction to forge adult education as a means for reducing economic, social and gender disparities. But, it reminds that previous experience has brought out the fact that programmes of literacy can become meaningful only when they come along with package comprising practical information and skills relevant to day-to-day needs of learners. Therefore, the POA articulated the main features of the implementation strategy to include, among others:

.               Application of science & technology, and pedagogical research for improving the pace and environment of learning,

.               Establishing linkage between adult education and the developmental programmes, and

.               A distinct slant in favour of women’s equality, and taking of all measures in pursuance of this resolve.

These are strong opinions and policy statements that used to get reflected in the curriculum of adult education programmes, as before.

The promotion of literacy became an important “national mission”, as postulated and declared by the NPE, 1986 and its POA. It is important to remember that the “functional literacy” articulated in the NLM was what was conceptualized in NAEP and further endorsed in the NAEP’s Review in 1980. The functional literacy implied: (i) achieving self-reliance in basic literacy and numeracy; (ii) becoming aware of the causes of one’s deprivation and moving towards amelioration of conditions through organization and participation in the process of development; (iii) acquiring skills to improve the economic status and general well-being; and (iv) imbibing the values of national integration, conservation of the environment, women’s equality, observance of small family norms, etc. These were again reiterated in the revised NPE, 1992 and its POA (MHRD, 1988; MHRD, 1992). This expanded concept of functional literacy can be viewed as literacy in rights, empowerment, development and improvement, requisites for the all-round development of individuals and the country as a whole, in the same way as the NAEP’s Review envisaged and recommended, and as formed the staple of literacy primers in TLCs and other learning materials developed for PLP and CE programmes all over India during the 1990s and until 2007 when the NLM lasted. Brevity considerations preclude details of their curriculum and contents.

National Curriculum Framework for Adult Education, 2011

A recent example of the assertive demand about the desired vision for adult education and its curriculum and contents as put forth by the Expert Group on National Curriculum Framework for Adult Education (NCFAE) is worth recounting.

A nation that is literate is one where its citizens are empowered to ask questions, seek information, take decisions, have equal access to education, health, livelihood, and all public institutions, participate in shaping one’s realities, create knowledge, participate in the labour force with improved skills, exercise agency fearlessly and as a consequence, deepen democracy. Systems are to be in place to build a nation that builds citizenship which is truly informed and literate … It is only when there is a credible, and institutionalized effort on a long term basis that the learner would take the programme of adult education seriously. The first step, therefore, is to understand adult education programme as a continuous and lifelong education programme, with all structures and institutions from national to habitation levels, on a permanent basis, as part of the education department. The principles of curriculum framework for adult education would need to be much more than literacy and post-literacy; it is the convergence of education, democracy, cultural practice, developmental practices, gender empowerment and much more (www.jkeducation.gov.in).

Non-Formal Education

Non-Formal Education

Introduced since 1975-76, NFE especially the functional literacy programme for the 15-25 age group youth and also up to 35 age group was, to provide meaningful education to especially the weaker sections of society who were denied the benefits of formal education. The programmes were to be related to the needs and aspirations of the learners. Conceptually incorporating latest thinking in the field of adult education, NFE was seen in need to form an indispensable link between life, work and learning. Since the learners are already participants in several community work and civic activities, shoulder family responsibilities and have reached certain level of experience and maturity, the content of the programme was emphasized to be appropriately designed to strengthen what they possess and provide what they do not. The significant aspect of NFE was its emphasis on locally relevant and diversified content, including science (A. Mathew, 1990).

Non-Formal Education for Women

In the states not covered under the FFLP, the earlier programmes implemented by the States continued. These included the programmes of Adult Education and Extension by University Departments of Adult Education, Non-Formal Education for 15-35 age group, as part of the larger NFE programmes, NFE for Women, Condensed courses for Women organized by Central Social Welfare Board as well as the All India Radio programmes for women and organizations of Mahila Mandal in rural areas, the Functional Literacy for Adult Women (FLAW). In FLAW, contents included: altitudinal changes to play the role as citizens, elements of health and hygiene, food and nutrition, home management and child care, civic and vocational education (SY Shah, 1999; S.C. Dutta, 1986; Anil Bordia, 1982: 13).

NAEP: Policy Perspective on Curriculum and Contents

The National Adult Education Programme (NAEP) was the first programme in adult education undertaken by the Central Government in 1978 on a national scale. The conceptual framework of NAEP was concretized by emphasizing three aspects of the content:

(a)    Literacy and numeracy, of a sufficient level, to enable the learners to continue learning further in a self-reliant manner;

(b)    Functional development wherein functionality is viewed as the role of an individual as a producer and worker, as a member of the family and as a citizen in a civic and political system; and

(c)    Social awareness, including an awareness about the impediments to development, about laws and government policies, and the need for the poor and illiterate to organize themselves for pursuit of their legitimate interests and for group action (Anil Bordia, 1982: 26).

In respect of instructional agency in NAEP, it was presumed that school teachers would mainly shoulder the responsibility of being instructors. After national level consultations, it was decided they should be not be excluded from it, but should be fully involved as instructors, as incorporated in the policy document — Outline of National Adult Education Programme. But distinct preference for utilization of young people as instructional workers was decided as policy. Prior to NAEP, designated and specific workers manned the teaching-learning task in the adult education programmes, such Social Education Organiser in Social Education, and teachers and other such functionaries in other forms of adult education programmes. In NAEP, students as well as non-student youth were preferred as Instructors, in view of their idealism and dynamic vitality in organizing development-oriented various NFE Programmes.

The implementing agency in NAEP was mainly the voluntary agencies. State governments were to step in only where none of the agencies like universities and colleges, anganwaris of ICDS Programme, NYKs, employers, PRIs were available. The implementation agencies, with government sanction, could take up any one or more of the following programmes:

(a)   Literacy with assured follow-up;

(b)   Conventional functional literacy;

(c)   Functional literacy supportive of a dominant development programme;

(d)   Literacy with learning-cum-action groups;

(e)   Literacy for conscientization and formation of organizations of the poor, as spelt out the Outline of NAEP document, and strictly in keeping with the spirit as in the Programme Outline (Anil Bordia, 1982: 18).

It was held as inconceivable that there could be a uniform programme in respect of adult education throughout the country. Therefore, in design, NAEP was to seek to combine the learning components in the various adult education programmes, including agriculture, health and hygiene and family planning, cooperatives and credit, etc., by harnessing the cooperation of the extension functionaries of those departments (Anil Bordia, 1982: 27). This was also true in respect of pedagogy.

A Catalogue of Literacy and Post-Literacy Materials was brought out by the Directorate of Adult Education, New Delhi, in 1978. The Catalogue and the actual materials as well as the new materials developed by the State Resource Centre (SRC), specially created for this programme, were put on an exhibition, exclusively organized for this purpose, in the launching ceremony of NAEP on October 2, 1978. The idea was that, based on the guidelines of Central and State Government, SRCs and DAE, the implementing agencies could adopt or adapt, or prepare new materials based on those already available (Anil Bordia, 1982: 27, 32).

From the point of view of curriculum and content as well as in terms of the society that NAEP wanted to fashion, it may be seen as a weak case, of using the content and curriculum envisioned for the conventional adult education programme, to create a society without exploitation, of equality, of empowerment to fight for their rights by the exploited, poor illiterates. The most critical break with the past for such curriculum and content perspectives, conscientisation of those engaged in design and development the content and curriculum should at least have been made a pre-condition.

With respect to the implementation of NAEP, there is a basic dearth of literature about the curriculum and contents transacted in the adult education centres. At any rate, this promising programme had to endure an unfortunate premature end within 2 years of its commencement. The understanding and perceptions of the Review Committee on NAEP in 1980 is positioned here as, perhaps, the most momentous, in respect of curriculum and content and also in respect of the vision of the resultant society, which the NAEP envisioned.

The Review of NAEP, headed by D.S. Kothari of the Education Commission fame, premised that national development comprises economic, social, political and cultural development. Over-emphasis on one facet of development leads to imbalances and aberrations. This implies that a national plan of development should include fuller employment and higher productivity, reduction of economic and social inequalities, a concerted attempt at family planning and welfare, and revitalization of our rich cultural heritage.

Like Preambles in the Constitution, these critical aspects of national development are identified and underscored so that these become the preambles for curriculum and content for the primers.

A few aspects dwelt by the Review Committee are discussed and its curriculum and content implications premised as implicit are seen here, with the premise that these continued to serve, for nearly 3 decades thereafter, at best in theory, as milestones and benchmarks for curriculum design in respect of the development perspective and the society envisioned.

Employment and Productivity

Programmes of fuller employment and higher productivity in the economy involve intensification and modernization of agriculture and allied activities and rapid industrialization. Improved productivity in agriculture and industry depends essentially on a literate and trained work-force, besides learning of new skills and upgrading of traditional ones.

Social Justice

Social Justice is proper distribution of benefits of development to reduce social inequalities and to raise the standards of living of the common people. The legal, administrative and economic measures intended to secure social justice should be strengthened by extending meaningful education to the illiterate and the neglected so that they may responsibly organize themselves in their struggle against gross social inequalities and injustices.

Family Planning

Perhaps no problem is more urgent than the containment of the population growth. The rate of the country’s development gets partially neutralized by increase in population. This was the perception in those days. The size of the family also has a bearing on the status of women and the family’s economic condition. Inclusion of population education in adult education programme would help observance of the small family norm which helps the family, and also is in the interest of the community.

Health-care

Primary health care for all is the foundation for an adequate national health service. This would need education in nutrition, sanitation, better awareness of use of indigenous remedies for common ailments and physical exercise, including yoga for physical and mental health. Health care is an important aspect of people’s education.

Learning Materials

Learning Materials

The concrete contents – subjects or themes – were identified by undertaking a quick survey in a few sample areas in selected districts. The survey sought to find out the needs and requirements of farmers cultivating the HYV of crops and applying modern methods and practices with regard to those crops. It was on the basis of the survey and discussions with the technical, professional and knowledgeable personnel in the field that the agricultural practices were identified and included in the curriculum and in the teaching and learning material.

The Directorate of Adult Education of the Ministry of Education under the Union Government, New Delhi prepared the first book in Hindi, Kisan Saksharata Pehali Pustak, using the analytic-synthetic method containing 18 lessons to be covered in a period of six months. The first book was based on the findings of the survey conducted in the Lucknow district in millet (jowar) growing area, mainly with small farmers.

This was followed by a set of five supplementary readers based on different HYV of crops. The first book was accompanied by a teacher’s guide, designed to help teachers in the methodology of using the book, and co-relating agricultural practices with literacy skills. This was a prototype to be adapted to conditions in various districts, which varied from the social, agricultural, linguistic and cultural points of view. More than 70 teaching and reading materials in various Indian languages were produced (S.C. Dutta, 1986: 95; J.C. Mathur, 1972: 51).

The Teaching and Learning (T-L) methods promoted and experimented within the FFLP were based on a combination of oral instruction, audio-visual communication, dialogues and discussions, demonstration and practical work. These increased learners’ participation and active involvement in searching solutions for the problems faced in daily life. In respect of the focus and objectives, and correspondingly in the curriculum and content of learning, in FFLP, there was a marked shift in emphasis from the traditional 3 R’s to the 3 F’s – functional literacy, food production and family welfare (S.C. Dutta, 1986: 99).

This programme required a new type of problem-based curriculum and integrated instructional material, for educating and informing illiterate farmers about high yielding varieties of seeds and package of improved agriculture. The curriculum and content in adult education was designed as production-cum-learning-cum-discussion groups. The pedagogy for adults hinge on demonstration, hands-on, discussions, shared learning. Seeing and experiencing is more effective and spontaneous learning process for adults.

The FFLP was the first programme funded by Government of India with the collaboration of many UN Agencies like UNESCO, UNDP, FAO and in its 10 year existence was subjected to at least 10 evaluations on different aspects, separately and together, by so many different agencies. This was also the first inter-ministerial and inter-departmental programme involving the Ministry/Department of Agriculture, Information Broadcasting and Education, from national, state, district, block and village levels.

The critical nature of inter-departmental coordination, so essential for the success of a cross-cutting programme like adult education, with implications for the learning inputs from so many different departmental agencies, was highlighted as follows:

Adult education and adult literacy is a total programme. It can not be run in isolation and that too by one department and within that department by one officer who is over-burdened with many jobs. We have to pool the resources – men, money and materials of all governmental departments dealing directly or indirectly with various programmes of adult education. It is high time that we free ourselves from problems of departmental jurisdiction and forge a united front to tackle this national problem. This type of close collaboration is not only essential at the national and state levels but it is even more important at the district, taluk and village levels. In this enterprise,

I am sure that the Departments of Agriculture and the All India Radio will extend their full cooperation, and treat it not as a fringe activity but the hard core of the programme. Functional literacy is to be treated as equal among partners and not the last …. (cited in S.N. Saraf, 1982: 68, emphasis added).

Literacy as Social Mobilization for Participation in Nationalist Movement

Literacy as Social Mobilization for Participation in Nationalist Movement

With the advent of popular Ministries in the Provinces, adult education in the country received not only new life but new orientation. The new syllabus of adult education was not confined to pure literacy, but included, in theory at least, civic education of adults. The media of education were extended to include publications, posters, cinema shows, etc. The movement for adult literacy, for as yet it was not very much more than that, began in the Provinces, but the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) reflected accurately the interest and thought of the country on the subject. In its 4th meeting in December 1938, it appointed a Committee to consider the question of adult education. The highlights of the Report, as became evident in the 5th meeting of the Board in May 1940, contained many recommendations, as adduced above.

The Mass Literacy Campaign (MLC) in Bihar, as in all other Provinces, and Princely States were already started and were based on civic education, which was inspired by Gandhiji’s experiment in education. Gandhiji’s ideas about adult education were the major factor in influencing the concept, purpose and role of adult education during the nationalist movement. Gandhiji’s Basic Education (Nai Taleem) was based on work as pedagogy and basis for knowledge and learning; this was the same principle both for children as well as for adults. In the case of adults, activity-based learning had a larger vision viz., (i) relevant to life’s immediate needs, as the universal truism for motivation and interest to learn by adult illiterate poor in rural areas; (ii) the spirit of co-operation which working together brings; and (iii) broadening the mental horizon of illiterates so that they participate intelligently in the freedom struggle (D.P. Nayar, 1980: 203). To Gandhiji, adult education was clearly a political strategy for social mobilization of the rural people – illiterates and literates, to participate in the nationalist movement.

While Gandhi’s Basic Education, widely emulated in different Provinces, was a constructive programme meant for strengthening of the democratic nation in the making, the Mass Literacy Campaign under the Congress Government in Bihar Province during 1938-39, was like “waging an unremitting war on poverty and ignorance” (cited in S.Y. Shah, 1999). It is surprising to note that the perception of the nexus between poverty and illiteracy and the conviction for a war on both as an inter-connected strategy.

The curriculum and content contemplated and developed for Bihar MLC, as in other Provinces, were charts and primers – charts for imparting literacy, through alphabetical method, used in formal education system and using students and teachers. Primers may have contained awareness and knowledge inputs regarding illiteracy and ignorance, illiteracy and poverty, etc. (Sohan Singh, 1957). Besides, the meetings and rallies addressed by political leaders, the instructors who were High School and College students and teachers must have given supplementary information and motivation regarding participation in the freedom struggle.

The understanding about what to teach adults stemmed from ideas of the nation state, the role of adults as citizens and their participation in the development of the country, in the socio-economic, cultural and political development processes. The image of educated persons was the ideal for the adult education programme as well.

Literacy for Citizenship and Democracy: Social Education, 1950

For an understanding of the knowledge imparted through adult education, it is important to remember some basic facts. The social education programme initiated as adult education during the first Five Year Plan, and implemented by the States, continued in some States like Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, etc., well up to the time of NAEP in 1978. The only exception were two, namely, the Gram Shikshan Mohim in Maharashtra and the FFLP which was started in three districts of three states initially, like Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka, in 1967, scaled up to 100 by 1973-74 and 144 covering many states by 1978 when the NAEP was introduced.

The objectives of Social Education were to: a) Instill a consciousness of the rights and duties of citizenship and foster a spirit of service to the community; b) Develop a love for democracy and impart an understanding of the way in which democracy functions; c) Knowledge of the outstanding problems and difficulties facing the country and the world; d) Develop love for the pride in our cultural heritage through the knowledge of our history, geography and culture; e) Teach the simple laws of personal and community health and develop habits of hygiene and cleanliness; f) Foster the growth of the co-operative spirit as a way of life; g) Provide training in crafts both as a hobby and as a means to economic betterment; h) Provide cultural and recreational facilities by way of folk dances, drama, music, poetry, recitation and other ways of spontaneous self-expression; i) Provide through these various activities as well as through reading and discussion groups, an understanding of the basic moral values; j) Give a reasonable mastery over the tools of learning-reading, writing, simple arithmetic and to create an interest in knowledge; and k) Provide facilities for continuation of education through libraries, discussion groups, clubs and Peoples’ Colleges (SY Shah, 2012).

The core curriculum suggested in the Social Education included: (1) Health and Hygiene (2) Family and Community living (3) Vocations (4) Literacy and Cultural activities and (5) Recreational activities. The Social Education was defined as a “course of study directed towards the production of consciousness of citizenship among the people and promotion of social solidarity among them”. It had three main aspects: (i) The spread of literacy among grown-up illiterates, (ii) the production of an educated mind in the masses in the absence of literacy education, and (iii) the inculcation of lively sense of rights and duties of citizenship - both as individuals and members of a powerful nation (cited in SY Shah, 1999).

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the first Education Minister and who was devoted to, and who took personal interest in adult education, emphasized that attention must be paid to education in citizenship, to personal and public health, to the provision of information which would allow people to effect some improvement in their economic condition, to the encouragement of art and literature, including creative activities and to the development of universal ethic of tolerance, mutual appreciation and universal principles of right conduct (Anil Bordia, 1981: 59).

Gram Shikshan Mohim (Village Literacy Movement), 1959-1963

The Gram Shikshan Mohim, 1959-1963 was the first genuine MLC initiated after Independence albeit in one district, viz., Satara in 1959 and up-scaled later to the whole of Maharashtra. As part of the curriculum and as topics in the syllabus, information was given regarding:

(i) Sanitation, farming, administration of the village, child development;

(ii) Importance of cleanliness, instructions regarding use of bathrooms, latrines, urinals, etc;

(iii) Inculcation of healthy habits among villagers; and

(iv) Information regarding farming methods of sowing, various types of manures, preventive measures for crop damage by diseases in view of the centrality of            agriculture to the life in the village.

For the initial campaign, the literature used consisted mainly of charts, strips and booklets, covering the topics, as above, and also relating to common themes of economic, social and religious nature, relevant to villagers (S.N. Saraf, 1982).

After the initial four months’ campaign was over, the programme of re-training in literacy and enriching the knowledge of neo-literates was taken up. This follow-up work was done through the circulating library scheme and social education centres. Four sets of booklets, each set containing 10 booklets, were circulated among the neo-literates by the teachers of primary schools through the children enrolled in schools. The theme of the materials was of direct relevance to the neo-literates and catered to their social, religious, cultural and economic felt needs. The titles of these forty booklets were:

First set: Our neighbour, our animals, our crops, kitchen gardening, our treasurers, Goddess Amba of Kolhapur, Ramayana Balkanda, Coastal part, Man’s wonderful study, Gandhi Baba.

Second set: Village family, Jewel-like Jawar, Paddy (Japanese Method), Rama Sita, Shivaji, Jeeja Bai, Sant Tuka Ram, Sant Ek Nath, Jyotiba Phule, Dr. Ambedkar.

Third set: Gandhiji’s village, groundnuts, new way, Ashoka, Eyes were opened, Agarkar, I shall be a farmer, Courts of law, Saint Gadgebaba, Bajra.

Fourth set: Sugarcane, night soil pits, Youth clubs, the farm shows the work, Sweet little home, mahila mandals (women’s clubs), wheat, better nutrition within one’s means, Sweet grapes, animal diseases.

These were materials about national leaders, historical personalities, major agricultural crops, civic and social matters, religious deities, etc. It is revealing and sobering to note that these aspects of learning as part of adult education were internalized as critical and followed at least 6-7 years ahead of the global trend as evident in (EWLP) and in (FFLP), a few years thereafter.

Functional Literacy: Shift from Citizenship Pre-occupation

Improving the efficiency of the farmers for increasing agricultural production in the districts covered under HYVP was the objective of this programme of Farmers’ Training and Functional Literacy Programme started in 1967-68 in three districts as a pilot project. As the operations involved adoption of improved and scientific practices, the farmers’ training programme provided the essential inputs. Since illiteracy constituted a serious obstacle to increased production, the functional literacy programme of Ministry of Education (MOE) helped illiterate farmers to not only acquire literacy in reading and writing skills, but also the agricultural knowledge of immediate use to them in their day to day work. Much like the programmes in Algeria, Ecuador, Guinea, India, Iran, Madagascar, Mali, Tanzania, Zambia, etc., as part of the UN Agencies-sponsored EWLP, the functional literacy was envisaged (S.C. Dutta, 1986: 93-94) to help farmers to:

.               Complete simple application forms for loans;

.               Read and prepare their own Input Cards;

.               Write simple letters;

.               Keep simple account of the operations;

.               Read and understand labels on fertilizer bags and pesticide packages; and

.               Read and make use of simple extension bulletins, rural newspapers, etc.